Across various regions globally, there is an observable rise, or in some cases, resurgence, of far-right ideologies. This trend is closely associated with increasing xenophobia and majoritarian sentiments, which have intensified the scrutiny of democratic principles and freedoms, particularly religious freedom and freedom of conscience. Europe, historically celebrated as the cradle of enlightenment and renaissance, is currently grappling with rapid demographic and social transformations due to migration, heightened opposition to migrants, and a notable surge in Islamophobia. This backlash is often perceived as a threat to established cultural norms and worldviews, as exemplified by the controversial ban on headscarves in France, which has sparked a broader debate about the regulation of relations between state and religion.
While India is recognized as a young and dynamic democracy, it does also face increasing issues related to majoritarianism and some observers think that it is be hurtling toward elected autocracy. Nonetheless, the country seems to be regaining its balance. Indian democracy could offer valuable insights into how such tendencies can be counteracted.
Europe does not adhere to a unified model of state-church relations; instead, it exhibits a diverse spectrum across different countries. While some external observers may think that the strict separation of church and state is typical for Europe, the reality is considerably more varied, with different European nations recognizing and privileging some Christian denominations.
In the Nordic countries Norway, Finland, Iceland, Denmark, and Sweden the Evangelical Lutheran Church is both established and endowed with specific privileges by the state. In England, the Anglican Church holds an established status, while Scotland’s Presbyterian Church is similarly recognized. In Greece, the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ dominates religious life. These variations illustrate the complex and multifaceted nature of state-church relations across Europe.
In India, the model of secularism arises from the country’s inherent diversity and constitutes a foundational element of Indian democracy. Unlike European nation-states, which often evolved around a singular religion and language, India emerged as a nation-state following its independence from the British Empire. India’s diversity encompasses a wide array of languages, ethnicities, religions, and castes. The vision of the founders of independent India is enshrined in the constitution and its preamble, reflecting a commitment to a secular democracy where all citizens are afforded equality regardless of language, religion, caste, or ethnicity. This framework underscores the importance of secularism in maintaining the integrity and unity of a diverse nation.
A secularism designed to safeguard the freedom of religion for both communities and individuals
To ensure equality, the Indian state adopted a principle of secularism, which fundamentally differs from the European concept of strict neutrality or separation of state and church. Indian secularism is designed to safeguard the freedom of religion for both communities and individuals. It entails that the state does not endorse any particular religion and maintains equal distance or ‘principled distance’ from all religions, thereby ensuring that all religions are protected equally. In the absence of a state religion, neither taxes nor public funds can be allocated to promote any specific religion.
Additionally, no religion is to be taught in public schools. Despite this, India’s religious denominations are allowed to promote their cultural practices, maintain properties, and conduct processions. However, such processions have occasionally been exploited to incite religious violence against Muslims. Recently, certain universities have imposed bans on the hijab on campus. Moreover, some states are no longer recognizing Muslim educational institutions (known as madrassas), potentially leading to their closure. There is also a legislative proposal to impose stricter regulations on waqf properties, which are institutions of Islamic law. This is significant as there are efforts to «reclaim» or dispute the status of mosques and dargahs, asserting that they were constructed on sites formerly occupied by Hindu temples.
A multiculturalist secularism that tolerates the presence of religious communities and religion in public life
India is experiencing a rise in Hindu nationalism. This ideology, with its stated goal of establishing a Hindu Nation, is receiving significant patronage from the government. It is associated with institutionalized discrimination against religious minorities, particularly Muslims and Christians. In the past year, there has been a notable increase in targeted communal riots, mob lynching, hate speech, and hate crimes directed at Muslims and Christians. This surge in violence is facilitated by the systematic erosion of democratic institutions.
The outcome of the 2024 general elections suggests however that Indian democracy is more resilient than previously thought and will be able to restore the balance.
This resilience is due to the long legacy of pluralism, composite culture, and constitutional democracy, which emphasize equality and inclusion. A further important factor is India’s model of multi-cultural secularism, which tolerates religious communities and religion in public life.
In India, all places of worship are accepted and protected by the state. Moreover, some festivals and religious observances see participation from more than one religion. For example, the Ganesha festival is marked by large public processions that often traverse Muslim-majority areas, with enthusiastic participation from Muslims and, at times, blessings sought from Muslim dargahs. Similarly, processions during Muharram, one of the four Holy Months of Islam, may seek the blessings of Hindu temples. The routes for these processions are typically determined by Peace Committees, local interfaith groups composed of members from various religions.
Additionally, the Indian model of secularism upholds the right to religious conversion, provided that such conversions are free from coercion, fraud, or inducements. The state also acts against caste discrimination, even though caste remains a component of Hindu identity. Recent state interventions have also included giving women access to certain temples they had been excluded from because of religious traditions.
It is imperative to advance robust democratic values such as pluralism and religious tolerance. Pluralism requires dialog and consultation, which are instrumental for fostering trust and resolving conflicts that threaten coexistence. Persistent stereotypes of minorities in India and migrants in Europe underscore the urgent need to effectively counter disinformation. It is essential to dispell such stereotypes and construct positive narratives of pluralism instead. Also, states need to develop institutions that promote the equitable participation of all citizens and address discriminatory practices.
Neha Dabhade is the director of the Centre for Study of Society and Secularism in Mumbai. She has published numerous articles and reports in magazines and books. Her interests include gender issues, conflicts, peace and conflict resolution, freedom of religion and creed, social harmony, and pluralism. She is a graduate of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in Mumbai.